Autism And The Development Of The Mind - 1305 Words

Autism and the Development of the Mind Phenomenon/Issue Autism is a neurodevelopment disorder characterized by inabilities to understand social skills, communication difficulties, self-stimulatory behaviors and other variations in strengths and weaknesses (Scheeren et al., 2013). Children with autism are more inclined to lack emotional regulation, resorting to limited social understanding (Joseph et al., 2004). This restricts their ability to impute beliefs of others and themselves. Theory of mind is said to be absent for children with Autism ( ). The Centers for Disease Control, reports an increase of 23 percent since 2009, in autism diagnosis. One in 88 children have a being diagnosed with Autism. within the past decade the†¦show more content†¦Cognitive or developmental impairment may be assumed if theory of mind is absent (Scheeren et al., 2013). Albert Bandura (1977), the originator of social learning theory, focused his research on the process of how people learn through observation. Social Learning stems from a cognitive and behavioral theory model. This is demonstrated through the well-known Bobo Doll experiment. The experiment entailed a child observing an adult being aggressive towards the Bobo Doll (Pavlov et al., 1961). The results indicated that children imitated the observed behaviors of being aggressive towards the doll (Pavlov et al., 1961). Empiricism According to Scheeren et al., (2013), children with Autism, lack a theory of mind. Which disables them to attribute beliefs or behaviors of others. According to Joseph and Tager-Flusberg (2004), neurocognitive impairments and executive functions in theory of mind, have both been hypothesized to play a causal role in autism. Children’s theory of mind begins to develop during the preschool age, making it vital to understand beliefs, mental representation, or general representation (Carlson Moses, 2001). Future Directions Theory of mind in children with Autism concerns the ability to understand conceptions of others and their action. Research on theory of mind addresses theoretically complex questions of human action while exploring theory of mind based on social cues and is this in part of one’s neuropsychological? Link toShow MoreRelatedA Brief Look at Autism985 Words   |  4 PagesAutism is a disorder of neural development characterized by impaired social interaction and verbal and non-verbal communication (Grandgeorge, Hausberger et al., 2009). The group that I have chosen for this study are children from the ages of 2 to 12 years. I chose this topic because it has always fascinated me, as well as I have a personal experience with this topic, my 10 year old cousin has autism. At the age of 2 he was diagnosed with autism and his parents were able to prepare him for his futureRead MoreLanguage Delays And Autism Spectrum Disorder1632 Words   |  7 Pages Language Delays in Autism Spectrum Disorder Bethany Perez Colorado State University Autism spectrum disorder is caused by abnormalities in the brain. Many children that qualify under the autism spectrum disorder, often experience developmental delays in three areas of development. Socially/emotionally, as well as cognitively, children with ASD are unable to progress at a normal rate of development compared to their peers. The level of communication due to language delays can be severelyRead MoreCognitive Development Of Children With Autism1260 Words   |  6 PagesCOGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDREN WITH AUTISM Cognitive development in children with autism spectrum disorder is vastly complex in its entirety. During development, the most critical period is within the first 6 years of life; at the age of 7, our brain is nearly developed to the average adult size. During this time, myelination, synaptogenesis and synaptic pruning are occurring and contribute significantly to the development of the brain. If disruption occurs in brain development, it is possibleRead MoreHow Do Children Develop?1195 Words   |  5 Pagesdevelop? Development in children is a fragile process with many different influences. Most children develop normally without any issues, however 1 in 60 children suffer from Autism Spectrum Disorder throughout their lives (â€Å"Facts About Autism† n.d.). In fact the number of children who suffer from the Autistic Spectrum Disorder has grown over the last decade (â€Å"Facts About Autism† n.d.). Autism is a brain disorder that usually shows up in childhood and carries on throughout adulthood. Autism makes itRead MoreTheory of Mind and Ex ecutive Function 858 Words   |  3 PagesTheory of Mind and the Executive Function Theory of mind (ToM) is â€Å"the specific ability to attribute mental states to oneself and to others† (Pellicano, 2007, p. 974). Attributing mental states essentially allows one to read another’s body language and therefore predicts their behavior. This is important in the socialization of a child, something that an autistic child struggles with. Baron-Cohen et al. (2000) believe the term ToM is synonymous with social intelligence. The executive function (EF)Read MoreAsd Essay1059 Words   |  5 PagesEvery two years, autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has become more pronounced. This is due to the modern world being more familiarized with ASD, and the extensive research being conducted into it. However, with the familiarization of ASD, parents and educators have become more concerned with the future of their children. Parents, as well as many others, have come to believe that ASD has sparked a negative impact on individuals such as their success. However, children who h ave ASD do not have a lowerRead MoreSigmund Freuds Theory Of Psychoosexual Development1221 Words   |  5 Pagesare to explain and understand change, growth and consistency throughout the life span. The science of human developmental psychology. The science of human development pursues to develop an understanding of how and why all kinds of people, everywhere change or remain the same over time. Sigmund Freuds (1856-1936) theory of psychosexual development describes how a personals personality develops of the course of their childhood. This is a well-known theory in psychology however it has always been quiteRead MoreThe Characteristics Of Autism Spectrum Disorders ( Asd )949 Words   |  4 Pages 1. What are the characteristics of Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)? As described in the textbook, there is a broad range of characteristics associated with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD). One of the first characteristics noted with ASD is language deficits, or using language in â€Å"odd† ways. As stated in the textbook, â€Å"Children with classic autism may be nonverbal. Alternatively, they may have significant language difficulties, so that their language may consist primarily of echolalia or delayedRead MoreAutism Spectrum Disorder And Autism1492 Words   |  6 Pageslots of attention. What used to be known as Autism was later renamed in the DSM to Autism Spectrum Disorder meaning, a neurodevelopmental disorder rather than a pervasive developmental disorder (Gargiulo, 2015). Autism spectrum disorder is a developmental disorder characterized by abnormal or impaired development in social interaction and communication and a restricted repertoire of activity and interests (Gargiulo, 2015). The IDEA describes autism as developmental dis ability that affects all areasRead MoreHow Children With Autism? Essay1308 Words   |  6 PagesHow Children with Autism can be Supported in Education? Autism affects the individuals’ social interactions and the social construction of the world (National Autistic society, 2015). Children with Autism follow a different developmental pattern from other children and develop at the different rate. It could be understood as a social/psychological disability. Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) – is a neurological condition that affects the way a person experiences and interacts with the world. Children

The Effect of Light and Color on Human Physiology in Workplace Free Essays

Essay The Effect of Light and Color on Human Physiology in workplace Safety working environment requires not only workplace with sufficient light, and also rational direction of the light, the lack of harsh shadows, causing glare. Proper lighting and painting equipment and hazards allows to watch them more closely (device painted in solid color), and the warning coloring hazards will reduce injuries. Besides selecting the right combination of colors and their intensity will minimize the time to adapt the eye when looking to the details on the work surface. We will write a custom essay sample on The Effect of Light and Color on Human Physiology in Workplace or any similar topic only for you Order Now Choosing the right color can affect the mood of the workers, and, therefore, the productivity of labor. Thus, the underestimation of the influence of light, the choice of color and light lead to premature fatigue of the body, the accumulation of errors, lower productivity, increased marriage and, as a consequence, to injuries. A disregard for the coverage due to the fact that the human eye has a very wide range of accessories: from 20 lux (full moon) to 100,000 lux. Color and light are interrelated. Coloring of equipment, materials and other to black oppresses workers. When carrying the standard boxes of black and white colors all workers declared that the black boxes heavier. Black thread on a white background can be seen at 2100 times better than white on black, there is a sharp contrast (brightness ratio). With the increase in brightness and lighting up to certain limits visual acuity and brightness increases, and eye can separate items, i. e. speed discrimination. Too bright light adversely affects the eyes, causing blindness and pain in the eyes. Incorrect choice of lighting affects not only the loss of working hours and fatigue of workers, but also increases the injury during the adaptation period when the worker does not see or difficulty seeing detail and performs work operations automatically. Similar conditions have been observed in assembly work in the evening under floodlights. Therefore the ratio of brightness (contrast substance) should not be large. Nowadays known that the red color stimulates, but quickly tires worker, green is useful to man. Natural light is the best for human health. Sunlight has a biological effect on the body, so natural light is hygienic. Replacement of artificial daylight is allowed only for some reason if you cannot use (or not use) natural light in jobs. How to cite The Effect of Light and Color on Human Physiology in Workplace, Papers

Climate Change Mitigation

Question: Discuss about the Climate Change Mitigation. Answer: Introduction: In a recent climate report, it has been analyzed that human-caused carbon dioxide emissions are a small part of the total CO2 emissions (Ewert, 2012). The oceans contain 37,400 billion tons of suspended carbon. On the other hand, the land biomass contains 2000-3000 GT (Barford, 2013). The atmosphere contains 720 billion tons of CO2. However, only 6 GT CO2 emission is caused by the humans in the society (Erickson, 2014). The oceans and land have been facilitating in balancing the CO2 emission caused by the human activities in the society. Hence, it can be assessed that the human activities produce the very small amount of carbon Dioxide emission in the environment in compared to another emission process (Rogelj, 2013). On the contrary, it can be said that a small shift in the air and ocean would be responsible for producing more CO2 emission compared to human activities (Hansen Sato, 2012). The content of carbon Dioxide was quite steady before the industrial revolution in the society. However, the natural Carbon Dioxide is not static. It is generated through the natural process and absorbed by others. On the contrary, the Carbon Dioxide emission caused by the human activities is increasing in an effective manner. By burning the fossils fuel, the amount of CO2 emission is getting higher. Although the human output of 29 GT of CO2 is a tiny amount compared to 750 GT, the ocean, and land often fail to absorb the extra amount of CO2 (Hayward, 2012). It has been seen that 40% of the additional carbon dioxide are absorbed by the land and air. Sometimes, the human produced CO2 upsets the natural balance of the Carbon cycle in the environment (Ryley Chapman, 2012). Hence, it can be identified that the human-made carbon Dioxide has been increased by the industrial activities. After the industrial development, the external carbon emission has been increased (Hunter, 2012). On the other hand, the fossils fuel delivers the very small amount of carbon emission. However, the natural carbon swap over process cannot soak up the extra emission of the carbon. Figure: The global carbon cycle (Source: Keener, 2012) The decade 2000-2009 was the warmest since the global climate records began, and 2009 was the second warmest single year. As per the Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS), 2009 was the hottest year for the southern hemisphere (Ollier, 2013). Although 2008 was the coolest year of the decade, 2009 had experienced the record temperatures. By decoding the temperature record, it can be identified that the rising level of Carbon Dioxide and other greenhouse gas emission caused the enhancement of heat into the climate. Most of the climate scientists have agreed with the fact that the emissions of these gasses are the key factors for the hottest global climate in 2000-20009 (Oniscu, 2014). However, there are three other prime factors such as changes in the Suns irradiance, changes in aerosol level, and oscillations of sea surface temperature. With the involvement of these factors, there is slight increase and decrease in the planets temperature. On the contrary, these effects do not ind icate adequate resources for the global warming experienced since 1880 (Hansen, Sato Ruedy, 2012). The climate scientists have shown the report that the average global temperature has been increased by 0.36 degrees F or 0.2 degrees C per decade. By conducting the total calculation, it can be evaluated that the world has experienced the enhancement of the global temperature by 1.5 degrees F or 0.8 degrees C since 1880 (Ryley Chapman, 2012). On the other hand, the oceans can make an adverse impact on the global temperature. For example, El Nino and La Nina show how the global temperature can be influenced. the global temperatures decrease when La Nina wakes (Ryley Chapman, 2012). Moreover, La Nina restrains the impact of the greenhouse gas emission in an effective manner. During 2000-2009, the small particles in the atmosphere called aerosols were increased (Edenhofer, 2014). Consequently, it affects the global warming. The global warming affects the weather parameters in many ways. The global warming enhances the rate of evapotranspiration (Bellard et al., 2012). It is the total evaporation of water from the water, soil, and other planet bodies. Due to the impact of the global warming, the climate change is more visible (Smith, 2014). On the other hand, it also includes extra stress to the wildlife species and their habits. The global warming often causes the enhancement of the extreme weather, as it rises the temperature affecting the weather parameters in various ways. On the contrary, sometimes the changing frequency of the extreme events coincides with the global warming (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2015). Moreover, there are various signs of the extreme climate changes caused by the human activities. Due to the effect of global warming, the atmosphere contains 4% more water vapor than previous years (Yamaguchi, 2012). With the impact of the global warming, the temperature in the atmosphere goes high, which causes extreme rainfall events. On the other hand, atmospheric circulation causes the huge changes in the sea surface temperatures. Hence, it can be assessed that the rising temperature enhances the possibilities of extreme weather events occurring (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2014). The climate change report of US says that the heavy rainfall has increased by 20% due to the adverse effect of the global warming (Erickson, 2014). Moreover, the frequency of drought has been increased due the impact of the rising temperature. Due to the rising temperatures over the last 5 decades, heat waves occur more frequently (Melillo, Richmond Yohe, 2014). The scientists have discussed the fact that the frequency of the weather change will be increased due to the effect of global warming (Ewert, 2012). Moreover, the global warming causes the enhancement of power and frequency of Atlantic hurricanes (Shindell, et al., 2012). However, there is a requireme nt for more research to evaluate other factors that create challenges in upholding the atmospheric stability in the society. Although the global warming has been causing many environment changes, it has some positive impacts on the humans and the planet. With the involvement of the global warming, the high-latitude zones become the verge of cultivation (Hunter, 2012). Consequently, it would become an agriculture friendly factor in the future. On the other hand, due to the global warming, the CO2 emission increases in the planet, which facilitates the plants to grow faster and better. The high level of CO2 gas emission facilitates in enhancing the agriculture (Hayward, 2012). Consequently, the people, who are engaged in the agriculture, can obtain high growth in their business. Hence, it can be assessed that the global warming would facilitate in making a greener planet. On the other hand, the humans obtain several facilities due to the global warming. In the winter season, most of the people face challenges in leading a healthy life. Due to cold weather, many children face health issues (Alcamo, 2012). Hence, the enhancement of the temperature would facilitate in leading a healthy life in the society. Sometimes, warmer weather is safety for the people living in the cold countries (Fankhauser, 2013). Due to the increased temperature, middle-aged people can be saved from the severe heart attacks. The warmer temperature in the nighttime makes the longer seasons, which is responsible for enhancing the agriculture productivity. Moreover, the enrichment of the environment with CO2 will facilitate in fertilizing the plants to make vigorous growth (Ollier, 2013). Consequently, it enhances the food resources of the people. Hence, it can be assessed that the global warming not only creates the adverse effect on the environment but also delivers several benefi ts to the people. The primary greenhouse gasses in the ambiance are methane, water vapor, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, and ozone. The lack of greenhouse gasses would cause the risen of the global temperature by 3-4 degrees (Christensen et al., 2013). In the climate report, it has been published that the greenhouse gasses contains 9-26% of carbon dioxide (Oniscu, 2014). The carbon cycle is being altered by the human activities on the earth. By adding more carbon dioxide in the environment, the amount of the greenhouse gas is increased. Consequently, it facilitates in balancing the temperature in the environment. The combustion of the fossil fuels increases the greenhouse gas in an effective manner. On the contrary, the adverse effects of the greenhouse gas would affect the ecosystems, biodiversity and the livelihood of the people. By discussing the current greenhouse gas concentrations, it can be assessed that the percentage has been increased by 41.2% since 1750 (Ryley Chapman, 2012). In the recent years, the greenhouse emission caused by human activity has been increasing in an effective manner. there is several sources of the carbon dioxide emission such as natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas, propane, fuel oil, kerosene, coal, etc (Yamaguchi, 2012). however, the highest percentage of the greenhouse emission appear from the petroleum coke and coal. Hence, it can be assessed that the human activities have been contributing in emitting CO2 in the environment, which facilitates in producing the greenhouse gas in an effective manner (Bindoff et al., 2013). References Alcamo, J. (Ed.). (2012).IMAGE 2.0: Integrated modeling of global climate change. Springer Science Business Media. Barford, E. (2013). Crop pests advancing with global warming.Nature. https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature.2013.13644 Bellard, C., Bertelsmeier, C., Leadley, P., Thuiller, W., Courchamp, F. (2012). Impacts of climate change on the future of biodiversity.Ecology letters,15(4), 365-377. Bindoff, N. L., Stott, P. A., AchutaRao, M., Allen, M. R., Gillett, N., Gutzler, D., ... Mokhov, I. I. (2013). Detection and attribution of climate change: from global to regional. Christensen, J. H., Kanikicharla, K. K., Marshall, G., Turner, J. (2013). Climate phenomena and their relevance for future regional climate change. Edenhofer, O. (Ed.). (2014).Mitigation of climate change. Cambridge University Press. Energy and global climate change 2012. (2012). Washington, D.C. Erickson, G. (2014). Advertising, economic development, and global warming.Economic Modelling,41, 119-123. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2014.05.004 Ewert, F. (2012). Adaptation: Opportunities in climate change?.Nature Climate Change,2(3), 153-154. https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nclimate1426 Fankhauser, S. (2013).Valuing climate change: the economics of the greenhouse. Routledge. Hansen, J. E., Sato, M. (2012). Paleoclimate implications for human-made climate change. InClimate change(pp. 21-47). Springer Vienna. Hansen, J., Sato, M., Ruedy, R. (2012). Perception of climate change.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,109(37), E2415-E2423. Hayward, T. (2012). Climate change and ethics.Nature Climate Change,2(12), 843-848. https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nclimate1615 Hunter, R. (2012).Climate change. Mankato, Minn.: Sea-to-Sea Publications. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (2014).Climate Change 2014Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Regional Aspects. Cambridge University Press. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (2015).Climate change 2014: mitigation of climate change(Vol. 3). Cambridge University Press. Keener, V. (2012).Climate change and Pacific islands. Washington, DC: Island Press. Melillo, J. M., Richmond, T. T., Yohe, G. W. (2014). Climate change impacts in the United States.Third National Climate Assessment. Ollier, C. (2013). Global Warming and Climate Change: Science and Politics.Quaestiones Geographicae,32(1). https://dx.doi.org/10.2478/quageo-2013-0008 Oniscu, G. (2014). Global Warming in Transplantation.Transplantation,97(12), 1207-1208. https://dx.doi.org/10.1097/tp.0000000000000077 Rogelj, J. (2013). Long-term climate change: projections, commitments and irreversibility. Ryley, T. Chapman, L. (2012).Transport and climate change. Bingley, UK: Emerald. Shindell, D., Kuylenstierna, J. C., Vignati, E., van Dingenen, R., Amann, M., Klimont, Z., ... Schwartz, J. (2012). Simultaneously mitigating near-term climate change and improving human health and food security.Science,335(6065), 183-189. Smith, H. (2014). Deep-sea warming slows down global warming.Science,345(6199), 886-887. https://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.345.6199.886-g Yamaguchi, M. (2012).Climate change mitigation. London: Springer.

The True Nature of Cannibalism A Tribute to the Deceased free essay sample

This paper examines the historical realities and significance of cannibalism and cannibalistic peoples. Using historical evidence of cannibalism existence, this paper identifies different forms and practices, and explains the motives for such behaviors. For millions of years, the majority of humans and their ancestors around the world have eaten meat, derived from a countless number of animals. However, the majority of these people have avoided one particular kind of meat: human flesh. For a human to knowingly eat the flesh of his own kind has been taboo to the most extreme definition of the term. Even the thought of it provokes a deep-rooted, enculturated repulsiveness that is so powerful it has actually prevented modern humans from eating remains of dead people for the sole purpose of survival (Barker, Hulme, and Iversen 1998:37). In other words, they would rather die than eat the meat of another person. The general practice of eating human flesh, anthropophagy, commonly referred to as cannibalism, has always been a subject full of controversy and debate. We will write a custom essay sample on The True Nature of Cannibalism: A Tribute to the Deceased or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Hundreds of scientific studies have been published on the subject, but few have focused on the anthropological reasons for its supposed occurrence. In order to understand the true nature of cannibalism, it is necessary to examine it from a number of different perspectives. First, the historical evidence indicating that it took place must be carefully analyzed and interpreted. Second, the different forms of cannibalism must be identified and defined, and examples of their historical presence must be cited. Lastly, the motives of each type need to be explained, detailing the various tendencies of cannibalistic peoples and their practices. Only then will the appropriate significance of cannibalism and its existence become clear.

What You Need to be a Stellar Nurse

What You Need to be a Stellar Nurse Nurses have the privilege direct hand in healing people every day, which makes the job extremely rewarding†¦ and very high-pressure. Do you have what it takes to excel? Here are some traits every good nurse should posses. Mental staminaAs a nurse, not only do you need the physical energy to be on your feet all shift and every shift, but you also must develop the skills to remain calm and cool in even the most dire of medical emergencies–every day. You are around high-pressure situations and it’s often up to you to maintain order.EmpathyNurses deal with patients (and their families) who are confused and scared. Sometimes, they’re unfortunately in a lot of pain, as well. While every patient in front of you is one in possibly hundreds you’ll see that week, you need the empathy to understand your patients’ physical and mental struggles and do your best to alleviate them. Nurses must be a calm, cool, and confident presence in the face of many differ ent ailments.Attention to detailIn nursing, vigilance is not only important, it literally sometimes a matter of saving lives! With doctors and patients both relaying tons of facts and figures, nurses must expert listeners and direction followers, down to the letter, many times a day.Communication skillsNurses are often called upon to explain complicated medical matters to patients in language they can comprehend–you need to be clear and direct, and patient enough to answer even the most minute of questions.The more you practice nursing and the more situations you encounter, more you will continue to develop these important traits.

Famous Quotes About Women and Womanhood

Famous Quotes About Women and Womanhood Reams of paper and reels of films have been dedicated to describe a woman. Women-oriented books promise to reveal the secret underlying womanhood. Biologists have spent their lifetime decoding the mystery of a woman. But the woman continues to be an enigma. Her enigma embodies her beauty. And this beauty is not skin-deep. These famous quotes about women explore the qualities of women. Famous Quotes About Women Rebecca West, The Clarion I myself have never been able to find out precisely what feminism is. I only know that people call me a feminist whenever I express sentiments that differentiate me from a doormat or a prostitute. Anne Morrow Lindbergh, American aviator, Gift From the Sea By and large, mothers and housewives are the only workers who do not have regular time off. They are the great vacation-less class. Samuel Richardson, Writer A beautiful woman must expect to be more accountable for her steps, than one less attractive. Charlotte Bronte, Novelist [in a letter to William Smith Williams] I am neither a man nor a woman but an author. Loretta Young, American Actress A charming woman doesnt follow the crowd. She is herself. Toni Morrison, Author, Sula I know what every colored woman in this country is doing. Dying. Just like me. But the difference is they are dying like a stump. Me, Im going down like one of those redwoods. I sure did live in this world. William Congreve, English Playwright Heaven hath no rage like a love to hatred turned, nor hell a fury like a woman scorned. Rudyard Kipling, Author A womans guess is much more accurate than a mans certainty.

Male-Female Relationships Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Male-Female Relationships - Research Paper Example Thus, romantic relationship remains the main focus of many researchers. The relation now aims at analyzing the social, emotional, mental, sexual and physical aspects between the two periods. Therefore, several interviews were taken to vilify this case. Introduction In any relationship, romance is measured by several factors such as the emotions of the couple. Furthermore, one can measure the strength of the relationship by number of conflicts, occurrences of domestic violence and resolution of domestic violence. In a study carried out, seven groups of participants were studied. An interview was carried out in several parts of U.S. such as cities like New York, colleges and universities like the Harvard University, and in remote places such as Harlem. Furthermore, another aspect that was analyzed during the study was the number of respondents. The study involved seven different respondents like college students, which includes young men and women aged 18-23 years. This group was close ly followed by the old in society which involved men and women over 24 years. The third group was the scholars which involved the doctors and psychologists. Furthermore, couples were also interviewed and at the same time the singles were also interviewed. Psychiatrists and police officers gave pout their reports. In this method, related literature was also studied and analyzed. The literature was a report on a research that had been carried out ten years across the line. Research question The purpose of the study was to compare the relationship in early 90s and the present relationship in families. Several factors were measured during this study. In this study we investigated the differences between men and women. We analyzed the physical, emotional, sexual and mental differences between the two sexes. The study aimed at unfolding the differences between the city and the rural area and the influence it has on relationships. We based our analysis on television, radios, movie, music a nd many more. Furthermore, the study was aimed at investigating gender socialization and age difference in relationships. In our study, we aimed at exploratory instead of testing the hypothesis. In our study, we investigated the number of conflicts in relationships. We considered the level of conflict, the frequency with which conflicts occurred and the ease of resolving the conflicts. Conflicts in relationships can be viewed as the measure for analyzing if a relationship is fairing on well or not. Furthermore, the ease with which conflicts can be resolved is used to determine the number of families which have recently broken as results of conflicts. Research site In our research, we analyzed respondents from Harvard University who included young men and students. The study included respondents from varied cultures and believes. Other respondents from the city and the rural were also analyzed. Among the respondents in New York, we managed to interview about 80 respondents. In the sa me way, we interviewed 80 respondents from Harlem. The group included both the elderly and young couples. In addition, the analysis of the results involved an analysis of results on a report on a research that was carried in 1987 in U.S on relationship among couples. Research design Our study made use of interview which had several respondents. During the study, several samples were used in specific areas. The study involved both men and women as

Living in colonial america Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Living in colonial america - Essay Example Since Lord McGee had absolved me, no one would return me to his farm which was now hundreds of kilometers away. However, Lord McGee’s letter of absolution was not immunity sufficient to guard against being mauled by white-owned dogs, abduction or bullets which would be whimsically fired at me. The reasons that would be given for my death would be as simple as stating that I had maliciously encroached a white man’s farm, beaten my white Lord before fleeing, or that I was aiding other slaves to escape. I am attempting to by all means get to Maryland, from New Jersey. The freeing by Lord McGee and personal reason such as the need to get to a land with better prospects for freedom, economic prospects and psychological healing inform my journey to Maryland. I have stopped to work in five Christian-owned farms for wages. The wages came in handy as fare. It has been two months since Lord McGee released me and I walked and ate less to save for the most difficult of the journey. I was now near the border of New Jersey and I needed to sneak through Delaware, since it was illegal for slaves to pass from one colony to another. I did not want to stay in Delaware since it was very slow in passing abolitionist and anti-racist policies and laws, as opposed to Maryland. I would need a lot of money to travel through Delaware since I wanted to spend the least amount of time possible, in Delaware. As I reminisced, I realized that stringent laws cannot crush people into capitulation. As we entered 1735, slave laws had become increasingly rigorous and inhumanly brutal. In Bergen County where Lord McGee’s farm is situated, a law had been passed to the effect that any slave who attempted to set a house ablaze would be burned at the stake. Perhaps this was a response to the rising number of slaves in New Jersey. This observation could be lent credence since Perth Amboy had the largest

Checklist For Evaluating Internal Controls Essay Example for Free

Checklist For Evaluating Internal Controls Essay For publicly traded companies, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 requires an audit of internal controls. The purpose of an internal control evaluation is to evaluate risk, which offers auditors a basis for audit planning and provides useful information to management (Sox Law, 2006). Auditors typically use the five basic components of internal control to approve the entire system. According to Louwers, Ramsay, Sinason, and Strawser (2007) the five components to internal controls include control environment, risk assessment, control activities, monitoring, and information and communication. Control environment involves the tone of the organization and includes â€Å"the integrity, ethical values, and competence of the companys people† (Louwers, Ramsay, Sinason, Strawser, 2007). Risk assessment involves a thorough assessment which â€Å"identify(s) risks, estimate their significance and likelihood, and consider how to manage the risks† (Louwers, Ramsay, Sinason, Strawser, 2007). Control activities involve specific actions which help ensure that management’s goals and projections are met. Monitoring involves the continuous assessment of internal controls. Information and communication relates to the efficiency and reliability of information and communication regarding how the information is presented and communicated to users. Internal controls protect the financial information and operations of a business. The development and implementation of these controls are typically the responsibility of the business owners. Internal or external audits may be used to gauge the efficiency of internal controls. This audit generally takes place following a standard process of risk measurement regarding the business operations and financial information. The measurement data is most effectively determined by using an internal control checklist. Checklist Phase One: Understand and Document the Client’s Internal Control Obtaining an Understanding Control Environment Evaluation Risk Assessment Evaluation Information and Communication Assessment Phase Two: Assess the Control Risk Phase Three: Test Controls and Review Control Risk Reassess Controls Direction of the Test of Controls Reassess the Control Risk

Favoritism And The Powers Of The Gods :: essays research papers

Favoritism and the Powers of the Gods   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In ancient times, people believed that their lives would be significantly better off if the gods favored them. In the Aeneid, gods were battling with each other over who would control fate. Even the Bible shows us incidences of favoritism. In a society where everything is governed by the gods, the favor of a god bestowed upon a person was extremely important. In the sources, The Aeneid and The Bible, favoritism and the powers of the gods play crucial roles in determining the outcome of the stories.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  While reading the Bible, one cannot help but notice the obvious cases of favoritism. In the story of Cain and Abel, the Lord God is portrayed as a supreme being, who demands that the highest respect be paid to Him. In receiving offerings from Cain and Abel, God expects that they would bring Him only the best they could give. He took it for granted that each of the boys would sacrifice anything to please Him. However, this wasn’t to be:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  3 In the course of time   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Cain brought an offering to the Lord   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  from the fruit of the soil, 4 while Abel,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  for his part, brought one of the best first-   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  lings of his flock. The Lord looked with   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  favor on Abel and his offering, 5 but on   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Cain and his offering he did not.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  (Genesis 4:3-5) This passage shows that by giving an offering that is deemed worthy, the favor of God will shine down. However, the opposite also holds true, that if one’s offering is only sub-par, then God will not look down upon you with favor, as is the case with Cain.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This idea is also portrayed in the story of Noah. The Lord God has seen that his beautiful creation has been corrupted, and decides that he will destroy all living things on Earth. However, God spares Noah and all of Noah’s descendants because, â€Å"Noah found this favor with the Lord† (Genesis 6:8). The Bible describes how Noah sought the approval of God. In the story it says he was, â€Å"a good man and blameless in that age, for he walked with God† (Genesis 6:9-10). God concludes to save Noah because he obeyed Him and became what God wanted him to be, without ever relinquishing his own convictions and personal identity.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The idea of favoritism in Roman literature is extremely popular. Never was this more apparent than in The Aeneid of Virgil.

Healthcare Policy And Quality Essay

The essay will examine the management of medicines policy on standards in medication errors by nurses in the hospital environment, the guidelines that nurses must follow when giving medication in order to avoid medication errors. A definition for ‘medication error’ will be given. Further issues to be discussed include; why medication error happens, approaches aimed at minimising medication error and the importance of teamwork , a brief reflection and a conclusion based on the findings will be given. The use of medication process involves different health care professionals as a result , medication error can take place relating to a series of steps in the drug delivery process, and includes the process of prescribing, dispensing, transcribing and administration (Chua et al., 2009 ; Zhan et al., 2006), thereby making room for error to take place. Subsequent to prescribing errors, the administration of medication errors is the most frequent type as they are more likely to r each the patients and the greater chance of causing patient harm (Chua et al.,2009). The legislation of medicines applies to prescribing, supply, storage and administration and it is important to have knowledge of and adhere to this legislation (Nursing & Midwifery Council (NMC), 2008; Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain (RPSGB) (2009). The medicine management policy on standards in reporting medication errors, near misses and adverse drug reactions was located on the Local Trust’s website and was easy to access. The Local trust is an acute, non-profit, health service. From the policy all staff involved in the prescribing , administration, dispensing and checking of medicine has the responsibility to ensure the policy is implemented and adhered to. In the local trust policy it states any member of staff can report a medication safety incident, near miss or adverse outcome. The local Trust Policy was reviewed in January 2012. The trust will also monitor all medication related incidents and an annual audit will be carried out to assess the effectiveness of the policy. The audit will be undertaken on a random selection of 30 cases of reported incidents. This Local Trust implemented the guidelines for the administration of medicines by the Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC), 2008 which gives the information a prescription  chart must contain for safe and correct drug administration and gives clear principles for prescribing medicines. If the prescription is clear and accurate, errors are less likely to occur. The guidelines also states: â€Å"In exercising your professional accountability in the best interests of your patients; as a registrant, you must know the therapeutic use of the medicine to be administered, its normal dosage,side effects, precautions and contraindications,be certain of the identity of the patient to whom the medicine is to be administered , be aware of the patient’s plan of care† To appreciate medication mistakes and discuss policies for reducing and reporting medication errors, it is useful to understand the term ‘medication error’. The National Coordinating Council for Medication Error Reporting and Prevention states: ‘ a medication error is any preventable event that may cause or lead to inappropriate medication use or patient harm while the medication is in the control of health professional, patient or consumer’ (cited in Chua et al., 2009 p. 215). Different standards and policies are formed for varied circumstances and situations as well as routine moments (Unver, 2012). One such standard is the Standard for Medicine Management which replaces the Guidelines for the Administration of Medicines 2004, even though many of its principles remain relevant today (Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC), 2008. This standard points out the various ways of managing medicine for nurses as they are required to take responsibility for their actions and omissions for any errors they make when giving any medicine (Copping, 2005). Usually, medical mistakes do not harm patients (Department of Health (DoH) (2004). Although, the National Patient Safety Agency (NPSA) (2009) gave a written account that in England, less than 1% of the key instance of harm or death in the National Health Institute (NHS) were directly linked to medication error; 155 medical instances gave rise to severe harm and 42 deaths. Standards in the NHS are used to make sure proces ses and procedures are carried out in a uniform and consistent manner to help professionals and patients ( Tzeng et al., 2013). Also , the same process should be carried out in the same way  wherever the site or location and under the same circumstance. This uniformity removes errors from personal judgement and panic decisions during situations which could ultimately lead to the death of people under various circumstances ( Fore et al., 2012). The administration of medication is likely to be based on errors in nursing as under normal circumstances, nurses are involved in the administration process and they spend 40% of their time giving it (Wright, 2013; Unver et al., 2012). Hence some studies have reported high error rates, indicating that nurses are putting patients in danger, when such errors would cause a low or minor risk to the patient (Wright, 2013). It is of great value to establish the cause of errors so that solutions can be put in place to reduce medication error rates. Although there are medication policies, adherence to these policies are low (Kim and Bates, 2012). Prior to medication administration, the following checks should be done : ‘right medication, in the right dose, to the right person, by the right route, at the right time’ (Kim and Bates, 2012) . Despite the guideline established in the administration of medicines using the ‘five rights’, nurses may conduct in a way and give inaccurate assurance that the practice is safe ( Unver et al., 2012). Non-adherence to the ‘five rights’ of medicine administration were observed by Kim and Bates (2012), the observations show that for : wrong dose (1.8%), wrong medicine (13%), wrong time (7.1%), wrong person (5.2%) and wrong route (1.8%). An observation of potential error in the administration of medicine was made during a recent clinical placement in an elderly ward of a local trust. The ward has 30 beds and medicines were supplied in bulk to the ward, though more specific medicines were provided as single items on receiving a prescription by the pharmacy department. In addition, medication orders were written by doctors directly onto the patient’s medication chart without transcribing.The medication was given by nurses by referring to the medication chart. In view of human error, it was noted that the registered nurses on duty worked over 12 hours a day and Tzeng et al., (2013) noted that taking everything into account nurses function is significantly greater when working a regular 8hour shift compared to over 12hours shift. Further circumstances that contributed to medical errors by nurses include;  tiredness which can affect concentration (Copping , 2005), being distracted or interrupted (Wright,2013; Fore 2013), loss of concentration and a belief about limited drug calculation and numeracy skills among nurses ( Ramjan 2011). In addition, Leape et al., (1995) reported other types of medication errors: short of knowledge of the drug, information about the patient, in breach of the rule, slip and memory lapses, transcription errors, faulty drug identity checking, not interacting with other services, not checking the dose, insufficient monitoring , drug stocking and delivery problems Unver et al., (2012) also noted that medication error can also be as a result of systematic factors like heavy workload ; for example, a study carried out by Karadeniz and Cakmakci , (2002) in Turkey reported nurses fatigue was the primary cause of medication errors. Another factor is insufficient training . It has been wel l-known that newly qualified nurses lack of skills in clinical settings affects the occurrence of medication errors. A patient’s circumstance, that is complex health conditions), doctor issue (multiple orders, illegible handwriting) and nurse aspect (personal neglect, newly qualified staff, not familiar with medication and patient) . The avoidance of medication errors is extremely imperative for patient safety (Unver, et al., 2012). In the early 2000s Pape et al., (2005) was the first to initiate the use of aviation’s ‘ sterile cockpit’ code which has gained awareness in the health care to cut down on distraction during clinical tasks. The process included the use of vests and signs. The words ‘Do Not Disturb’ positioned in the medication vicinity were used as prompts to reduce distraction. Members of staff were also asked not to disrupt or distract the nurse doing the medication round of the ward. As a result , Pape’s (2003) study found 63% fewer distraction when using a firm checklist set of rules. Similarly, a study by Federwisch (2008) reported a 50% decrease in the number of staff interruptions, an increase of 50% in the standardisation of medication administration, 15% progress in the time vital to administer medications and 18% increase in on-time medication delivery when nurses wore yellow sashes during medication administration. On the whole, to lessen medication errors, the collaboration among doctors,  pharmacists and nurses is necessary ( DoH, 2004). Doctors must know their shortcoming and recognize their interconnection with other health care professionals (Pedersen et al., 2007), in particular nurse prescribers who help to ease the work of junior doctors. Verification by another nurse is essential as double checking by other nurses in adherence to the ‘five rights’ of medicine administration can help reduce an error (DoH, 2004). Subsequently, pharmacists can lessen the chance of errors by being in attendance on the ward drug rounds and chipping in their drug knowledge (DoH, 2004). Moreover, everyone in the health care team can help reduce medical errors by keeping a reflective journal (Tzeng et al., 2013 ) as a practical self-help tool, though there is a not enough of empirical study to support its valuable effects (Fore, 2013). According to Fore (2013), health professionals can reflect by one or more of the subsequent methods: welcoming feedback from colleagues about strengths and weaknesses; checks on critical incidents to find out what went wrong , why it went wrong and how to avoid a recurrence of an error; use of a diary for self evaluation and recognize knowledge gaps. It is generally accepted that system factors presents itself with medication errors in health care, nurses are the health professionals that frequently encounter and report medications error ( Roughead and Semple 2008). On the contrary, a study by Unver et al ,(2012) points out, more than half of nurses do not give an account of some medication errors as they are frightened of their colleagues’ reactions. As a result , it is important to foster a culture that is less fixed on laying guilt to promote communication and error reporting. The need to reduce medication error is a continuing process of quality improvement (Unver et al.,2 012). According to Sanders (2005) , to establish risk is the first act to undertake, as any other strategy to reduce risk may be inappropriate. This can be made by means of using tools such as audit ( Montesi and Lechi, 2009). The World Health Organisation’s (WHO) (2009) framework for the classification of problem, process and outcomes of patient safety events is a practical base for a framework to learn the circumstances surrounding medication error. In spite of information of under-reporting of medication errors, especially by physicians, (Franklin et al., 2007) incident reporting can produce an awareness into the errors that happen and make easy identification of contributing factors (Malpass et al., 1999a). Moreover, a  UK Government white paper, put forward standardisation of audit as part of professional health care (Montesi and Lechi, 2009). The National Institute for Heatlh and Clinical Excellence(NICE) (2002), defined clinical audit as : â€Å"a quality improvement process that seeks to improve patient care through systematic review of care against explicit criteria and the implementation of change† ( cited in Montesi and Lechi, 2009, p. 3). Clinical audit is a learning tool , which encourages high- quality care and should be implemented regularly and it offers an organised framework for inspecting and judging the work of health care professionals ( Montesi and Lechi, 2009; NICE, 2002). Audit is also a way of measuring and monitoring practice across a well- set of agreed standards and finding mismatches in the written word and actual practice. Similarly, detecting medication errors can also be through a chart review, reporting of incident, monitoring of patients, direct observation and computer monitoring (Montesi and Lechi, 2009). The only technique used for identifying errors of administration of medications is by direct observation ( Montesi and Lechi, 2009). This is done under the observation of a trained nurse by noting the similarity or dissimilarity between what is done in the administration and the original physician orders. In addition to direct observation, reporting systems is another process obtained from pro cedures in high-reliability organisation. On the other hand, reports given to legal services can cause confusion and bring about a connotation of blame (( Montesi and Lechi, 2009). Incident of reporting was first used in the UK by the Royal College of Anaesthetists. According to Montesi and Lechi ( 2009), there are two safety-oriented levels of reports. First, incident reporting where it is required that a the details recorded are concise, legible and a true version of events are recorded and sent to the central organisation , which supplies regular statistical reports and raising concerns about quality improvement. Secondly, voluntary reporting . This process is anonymous, confidential and blame- free.The benefits of voluntary reporting include; the detection of active and hidden system failures, evidence of significant processes and the distribution of a culture of safety ( Stump, 2000). Other methods include; patient monitoring, by interviewing, satisfaction surveys and focus groups. Through this, patients can learn about medication errors. With reference the Local Trust Policy, patients now receive an individualised medicine patient  information leaflet (PIL) detailing their in-patient and discharge medicine by advising them about any possible side effects and dosage information, contact details should more information be required. During placement, it was essential that the ‘five rights’ is followed during a medication round with the nurses. It became fully aware that the ‘five Rs’ is the most thorough way to prevent medication error arising. This policy has helped me establish how and why using the correct procedure helps to minimise administration errors from happening. Not all but most of the nurses at the placement adhered to the guidelines that the policy set out. In conclusion, the essay demonstrated that medication administration errors are still a continual problem that is related to practice in nursing . Nurses are mainly involved in medication administration. They also have an exceptional role of identifying and stopping errors that occur in the various stages. Encouraging patient safety should have a number of approaches that involve more than direct care nursing staff. Another basic cause, is human- factor, therefore a professional education with individuals and system focuses on patient safety matter is essential. Lastly, health professionals accountable for the prescribing, dispensing and administration of medicines must work collectively as team members in the ward environment . The essay also demonstrated how the problem of medication administration error can be dealt with by the National Health Service.

“Piano” by D.H Lawrence Poem Analysis Essay

Which aspects of relationships are presented in the three poems we studied? References to â€Å"Piano† by D.H Lawrence, â€Å"Do not go gentle into that good night† by Dylan Thomas and â€Å"Hal-past two by U.A Fanthorpe In the three poems we have studied: Sonnet 116 â€Å" Let me not to the marriage† by William Shakespeare ; â€Å"My last Duchess† by Robert Browning; â€Å"If† by Rudyard Kipling, different aspects of relationships and love are explored in different forms: power, pride, eternity, love as a guiding force and paternal care. These poets use language, images, and structure to make their messages about love more clear and evident. The first poem I am going to analyze is â€Å"My Last Duchess†. It portrays the tragic epilogue of a loveless marriage between the strict, severe Duke of Ferrara, who chose â€Å"never to stoop†; and the sweet, outgoing, naive Duchess privileged by the noble honor of being given her husband’s â€Å"nine-hundred-years-old† name. The poem investigates issues that can be involved in relationships where power and ego takes over. The Duke wields an exaggerated oppressive power, which contracts with the friendly attitud e of the Duchess towards inferior classes’ people. This became the central cause problem in the relationship: he disapproved of the Duchess â€Å"smiles† and blushes which â€Å"went everywhere†. He expected her to behave with the same tremendous dignity as himself. The Duke wants to see his wife behaving in a way befitting her noble place in society. Perhaps even an obscure and sinister jealousy triggered by the Duchess’ constant kindness, which he did not expect from a character, who should have been entirely of his possession: â€Å"since none puts by the curtain I have drawn for you, but I†. The quotation illustrates how after her death he kept her smile and blush exclusively for himself- perhaps this was what he wanted while she was alive. The fact that she talked with men and â€Å"thanked† them the same way she treated the Duke himself obsessed him. His supremacy was totally put at same level of a peasant’s: â€Å"somehow-I know not how- as if she ranked My gift of a nine-hundred-years-old name With anybody’s gift†. In fact, the duke is a person who loves control, and who is perfectly conscious about the fact of his superior so cial class. He wants everything to be under his possession- this can be seen by the fact that he likes and admires a bronze sculpture of Neptune taming a sea-horse. He enjoys anything involving control and power. A point that can also be  connected to the teacher of â€Å"Half-past two† by U.A Fanthorpe trying to tower over the student. The structure of the poem is composed by a strict and elegant iambic pentameter, which help the reader realize about the terrific sense of control the Duke possesses. It is fixed in well-ordered system of riming couplets, yet the poem is full of enjambments which help the poem flow like a conversation. In fact, Robert Browning set the poem out as a dramatic monologue- it was intended to be performed to an imagined listener. This creates a very fluent tone, capable to indicate immediately any change of the speaker’s state of mind. For example, his growing irritation, even rage, with his former wife becomes clear with the caesura to slow down the tone, when in the 43rd verse he states† And I choose Never to stoop. Oh sir†¦Ã¢â‚¬  The pause takes the poem into and angry edge. In fact when the Duke â€Å"gave commands†, the threat was very potent. The diction instantly points the change of tone: a recurrent assonance of the letter â€Å"s† comes out as an angry, sinister hiss and provides a sibilant sound. This transition with angry diction yet factual words also gives an image of the Duke as if he possessed no guilt and transmitting and unemotional shock. Browning also uses a As a result of this, as predicted, loveless marriages with no connection of † true minds† like in the Sonnet 116 of William Shakespeare would have never become the typical love story with a happy ending. The Duke juxtaposed a vivid hint about her death with negotiation about marrying his next â€Å"object†. Therefore it all ended when† [he] gave commands†; and â€Å"all smiles stopped together†. The second poem I am going to analyze is â€Å"If† by Rudyard Kipling. It illustrates a solution to life’s problems into one unique inspirational piece. This poem is a beautiful, personal goal for thoughtful readers who wish to be better people. It is an attempt to give a lesson in how to live: from the point of view of a father guiding his beloved son to become a â€Å"Man†. Naturally, we can also look at it coming from the point of view of any older man to a younger man- an emotional or spiritual father-son relationship. We can also deduce that the author wrote this poem directly to his children. Kipling was born in Bombay, India, in 1856. Although more than a hundred years passed since those wise phrases in â€Å"If† were penned, they can be applied even now and from a greater audience than the one  originally intended. People, that nowadays, is less and less aware of their responsibilities and taken over by a society of greed and indifference. People that if could strive to do even half of the things mentioned in the poem, would be far better people. â€Å"If† is a didactic poem, a work meant to give instruction. It has a rigid and controlled structure. It is written in iambic pentameter: an elegant construction of 11-syllable lines, with an extra, unstressed syllable. All of this tied up in four stanzas of eight rhyming lines, according to the pattern abab, cdcd; each referring to several specific traits to possess in different circumstances. This makes it easy to read and facilities memorization. The first section is about self-integrity and developing the proper attitudes about things. Kipling tries to teach us not to look down on ourselves, just because the others do: â€Å"if you can trust yourself when all men doubt you†. One will always find people who think differently from him, underestimate him or misjudge him. If millions of men are convinced about a foolish idea, it does not cease to be stupid. Th erefore the quotation conveys one to have faith and confidence in himself and do what he think is right and just. Imagine having the serenity of being subject to criticism and stay calm and relaxed until the very end: â€Å"†¦being lied about, don’t deal in lies, or being hated, don’t give way to hating†. Imagine one having to face all the injustice that trying to overwhelm him, to lose control. Kipling, with this statement reminds not to let others provoke us in doing something we know is wrong. Do not be easily influenced. Understand our value, but do not turn into arrogant. Pause and notice what Kipling does grammatically here: from the start. He composes the poem from a single repetition of â€Å"if†. The natural pattern for English is to state a condition thus, â€Å"if A, then B†. But Kipling is stating, â€Å"if A, if B, if C†. He’s piling on the conditions while delaying the consequence in a single long sentence. He builds up tension deliberately. That may also be the reason he calls the poem â€Å"If†. The second section is about overcoming the obstacles one encounters during his way. It is about following his dreams, fight for them, and strive to reach his goal. Whether he like it or not we are the cause of himself; he needs to move on, thi ngs are not going to get done by themselves- â€Å"if you can dream- and not make dreams your master†. The quotation also implies that we have to seize our opportunities when we have the chance, do not let it escape. Distinguish and understand  the right balance between being a thinker and a â€Å"Man†. Here the author has a really vivid imagination. He utilizes personification to promote caution against â€Å"impostors† such as â€Å"Triumph and Disaster†- capitalizing both words. He associates them to people who engage in deception under an assumed identity, charlatans. Unconsciously, both of them convince one to stop trying far more often than he usually expect. Frequently defeats can discourage his hopes and victories make him conceited and he permits them to influence him. Kipling reminds us that the world is not all a bed of roses. It is in fact, a miserable and despicable place and states that† if you can bear to hear the truth you’ve spoken twisted†¦ or watch the things you gave your life to, broken..†. If one consent the world to influence him, it will get him on his knees and leave him with nothing forever. It can hit harder than anyone els e. Hence, it is not a matter of how hard a person hits, but is a matter of how he can withstand adversities, resist and to have the strength to rise again after being beaten into the ground. It shows a hard work ethic. Consequently Kipling introduces us to the section, that could be retained the most valuable. He starts off by writing an extended metaphor, similar in characteristics, but different in meaning to the last quotation:† If you can make one heap of all your winnings†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Substantially the counsel it brings is that life is to be enjoyed, whether money is to be spent. Take risks; make mistakes and break rules, the world is there to be experienced. Stay hungry; stay foolish as a remembrance of Steve Jobs’ wise words. Afterwards, the main advice that is conveyed by the sequent verse:† if you can force your heart and nerve and sinew To serve your turn long after they are gone† is to never give up and strive to overcome your limits. Kipling could have just written â€Å"your body†, everybody know that it has a heart, nerves and muscles. However, by listing each one, he gives us a clear image of its member as if they were all united as a team with a common objective. However the real message that the author wants us to conceive is to be determined. Something that when our physical strengths abandon us, give us the force to â€Å"Hold on†. It can be the â€Å"Will† to reach a goal; or the Desire to win; or even the contempt of losing. Something that prevents us from stopping, ignoring the consequences. By capitalizing the word will, he conveys the reader that about its strength and power . Finally each verse of the last stanza contributes to consolidate the long-awaited conclusion. It  starts by speaking about being able to work with anyone: from â€Å"Kings† to â€Å"Crowds† and not changing who one is and what he stands for. Being able to keep some distances and qualities tha t he only possesses; without being influenced by his surroundings. And â€Å"if neither foes nor loving friends can hurt you† underlines the lesson that often the people, who one loves most, are the one who can hurt him more deeply. Major qualities as independence and self-supporting are advocated by the statement:† if all men count with you, but none too much†. Kipling creates a blueprint for personal integrity. It is about what a teenager might call â€Å"maturity†- acting like a grown-up and seeing the real value of things; without being dependent to anyone. Conclusively the author uses the metaphor:†if you can fill the unforgiving minute with sixty seconds’ worth distance run† to instruct the reader to fulfill every moment of his life in as enthusiastic and energetic way as possible. He suggests making every seconds of one’s life memorable; having no regrets. This aspect can also be referred to â€Å"do not go gentle into that good night† of Dylan Thomas, where men strive to fulfill their remaining time with their very best. And finally, he comes to the long-awaited consequence and reveals that if all the aspects had been covered, â€Å"Yours is the Earth and everything that’s in it, And-which is more- you’ll be a Man, my son!† â€Å"If† is also a poem of imagination. Kipling tries to find the perfection in the human being, where nothing can harm it. A stage where the one truly gains everything; and Kipling wishes that for his son. In sonnet 116, William Shakespeare explores the true nature of love, trying to work out both what real love is and is not. He says that this feeling is eternal, not affected by time, alterations and life’ troubles that couples need to combat. Sonnet 116 is presented with the ordinary fourteen lines made up of three quatrains and concluding with a challenging couplet. It is written in iambic pentameter with a rhyme scheme of abab cdcd efef gg. William Shakespeare frames its discussions of the passion of love within a restrained and disciplined rhetorical structure. The tone of the poem is also very fluent and smooth, filled with various enjambments. Moreover the simplicity of the language and poetic devices act as if wanting to draw the reader deeper into the theme. In the opening lines the speaker defines what the ideal love would be, by referring it as a â€Å"marriage of true minds†. It  is a relationship based on trust and understanding, which has come to a stage w here minds are entirely tied together. The writer describes it as being perfect and constant, even if it encounters changes in the loved one. He denies that love is true, when it â€Å"alters when alteration finds† or â€Å"bends with the remover to remove†. In choosing to describe love as this kind of force Shakespeare is able to convince the reader that love is indeed strong enough to fight the departure of a lover or a simple alteration. Yet, in the second quatrain he positively defines what real love is, whether the first one was based on what it was not.. The metaphor: â€Å"it is an ever fixed mark that looks on tempests and is never shaken†, represents it as an unshakeable guiding light to its â€Å"wandering barks†. The tempests portray the life’s troubles and people will experience, much the â€Å"winter† of â€Å"Piano† by D.H Lawrance. Shakespeare compares it to a seamark that navigators use to conduct their course- The North Star- whose altitude, or â€Å"height† has been measured although its value in indefinite. It is presented as an inestimable entity, whose force is tremendous and capable to give a channel to the lost ones. In the third quatrain William Shakespeare again describes what love is not: it is not subject to time although â€Å"rosy lips ad cheeks† have to face the â€Å"bending sickle† of time- which is also utilized as a synecdoche referring to death. Furthermore time is personified by referring it as â€Å"him† and compare also to Death. In fact the author wants to demonstrate that true love remains constant and does not alter â€Å"with brief hours and weeks† and survives â€Å"even to the edge of doom†- the Doomsday. To conclude the poem, with absolute conviction William Shakespeare challenges the readers to disprove his interpretation of love. He insists that this is the ideal of â€Å"true† love- and if love was mortal, changing and, temporary then â€Å"no man ever loved† or he would deny what he has written and the existence of it. By employing this paradox he strengthens the theme cleverly. What really gives Sonnet 116 its stimulating power is not its complexity; instead, it is his linguistic and emotional confidence.

Definition of Gerrymander

Definition of Gerrymander To gerrymander is to draw the boundaries of electoral districts in an irregular way so as to create an unfair advantage for a particular political party or faction. The origin of the term gerrymander dates back to the early 1800s in Massachusetts. The word is a combination of the words Gerry, for the states governor, Elbridge Gerry, and salamander, as a particular electoral district was jokingly said to be shaped like a lizard. The practice of creating oddly shaped electoral districts to create advantages has endured for two centuries. Criticisms of the practice can be found in newspapers and books going back to the time of the incident in Massachusetts that inspired the term. And while it has always been viewed as something done wrongfully, nearly all political parties and factions have practiced gerrymandering when given the opportunity. The Drawing of Congressional Districts The United States Constitution specifies that seats in Congress are apportioned according to the U.S. Census (indeed, thats the original reason why the federal government has conducted a census every ten years). And the individual states must create congressional districts which will then elect members of the U.S. House of Representatives. The situation in Massachusetts in 1811 was that the Democrats (who were political followers of Thomas Jefferson, not the later Democratic Party which still exists) held the majority of seats in the state legislature, and could therefore draw the required Congressional districts. The Democrats wanted to thwart the power of their opponents, the Federalists, the party in the tradition of John Adams. A plan was devised to create Congressional districts that would divide any concentrations of Federalists. With the map drawn in an irregular way, small pockets of Federalists would then be residing within districts where they would be heavily outnumbered. The plans to draw these peculiarly shaped districts were, of course, highly controversial. And the lively New England newspapers engaged in quite a battle of words, and, eventually, even pictures. The Coining of the Term Gerrymander There has been dispute over the years of who exactly coined the term gerrymander. An early book on the history of American newspapers stated that the word arose from a meeting of the Boston newspaper editor Benjamin Russell and the famed American painter Gilbert Stuart. In Anecdotes, Personal Memoirs, and Biographies of Literary Men Connected With Newspaper Literature, published in 1852, Joseph T. Buckingham presented the following story: In 1811, when Mr. Gerry was governor of the commonwealth, the legislature made a new division of the districts for the election of representatives to Congress. Both branches then had a Democratic majority. For the purpose of securing a Democratic representative, an absurd and singular arrangement of towns in the county of Essex was made to compose a district. Russell took a map of the county, and designated by a particular coloring the towns thus selected. He then hung the map on the wall of his editorial closet. One day, Gilbert Stuart, the celebrated painter, looked at the map, and said the towns, which Russell had thus distinguished, formed a picture resembling some monstrous animal. He took a pencil, and, with a few touches, added what might be supposed to represent claws. There, said Stuart, that will do for a salamander.Russell, who was busy with his pen, looked up at the hideous figure, and exclaimed, Salamander! Call it Gerrymander!The word became a proverb, and, for many years, was in popular use among the Federalists as a term of reproach to the Democratic legislature, which had distinguished itself by this act of political turpitude. An engraving of the Gerrymander  was made, and hawked about the state, which had some effect in annoying the Democratic Party. The word gerrymander, often rendered in hyphenated form as gerry-mander, began to appear in New England newspapers in March 1812. For instance, the Boston Repertory, on March 27, 1812, published an illustration representing the oddly shaped Congressional district as a lizard with claws, teeth, and even the wings of a mythical dragon. A headline described it as A New Species of Monster. In the text below the illustration an editorial said: The district may be exhibited as a Monster. It is the offspring of moral and political depravity. It was created to drown the real voice of the majority of the citizens in the country of Essex, where it is well known there is a large federal majority. Outrage Over the Gerry-Mander Monster Faded Though New England newspapers blasted the newly drawn district and the politicians who created it, other newspapers in 1812 reported the same phenomenon had occurred elsewhere. And the practice had been given a lasting name. Incidentally, Elbridge Gerry, the Massachusetts governor whose name wound up being the basis for the term, was the leader of the Jeffersonian Democrats in the state at the time. But there is some dispute whether he even approved of the scheme to draw the oddly shaped district. Gerry had been a signer of the Declaration of Independence, and had a long career of political service. Having his name dragged into the conflict over the Congressional districts seemed not to harm him, and was a successful vice-presidential candidate in the election of 1812. Gerry died in 1814 while serving as vice president in the administration of President James Madison. Gratitude is expressed to the New York Public Library Digital Collections for the use of the early 19th century illustration of The Gerry-Mander.

What SAT IIs Should You Take if You Plan to Study Business?

When you’re in high school, you normally take the PSAT, the SAT, and perhaps the ACT as well. That’s enough testing to get you into college right? Alas, not always. If you’re an prospective business student, you may be expected to take additional SAT II tests, as is true for many other majors. Which ones should you take if you plan to study business? Read on to find out. SAT IIs (also known as SAT Subject Tests), are a supplementary component of your college applications. The College Board administers these hour-long, subject-specific tests in a variety of academic disciplines, from Physics to World History. Selective colleges sometimes require SAT II scores to get a better sense of applicants’ strengths. If a student is homeschooled, it’s even more likely that a college will require SAT IIs.    For the most part, students get to choose which SAT IIs they wish to take. However, some colleges may require or recommend the number of SAT Subject Tests the student should take, or the subjects themselves. These sort of restrictions definitely exist if you are applying to some of the top colleges as a prospective Business major. Before you look at any of our advice below, make sure that you verify the admissions requirements for the schools on your college list to see if there are any SAT II tests that you must take. For example, many universities require that prospective business students take the Math II test because they want to ensure that you’ve achieved proficiency in certain mathematical concepts that are necessary to the major. Lately, many colleges have been moving away from requiring SAT Subject Test scores to simply recommending them. While this means that you may not technically need to take SAT Subject Tests to apply to that university, you should take their recommendation to heart. If you think you can study adequately and do well on the tests they suggest, you should definitely do it; it could be a helpful addition to your application. Here are some examples of schools that require or recommend their applicants to submit SAT Subject Tests: If your college recommends SAT Subject Tests and you’re a prospective business major, the first exam you should sign up for is the Math II. Almost always, colleges will want to see that their business majors have mastered mathematical concepts up to pre-calculus. The Math II subject test fulfills that requirement. Math I is not recommended, especially if you’re applying to a more selective school, as the concepts tested on Math I are not as advanced. Strong math skills are necessary for business majors, particularly in their finance and accounting coursework. Thus, it is beneficial to study for this test and master these skills now as you will use them again and again in business school.   Our students see an average increase of 250 points on their SAT scores. Most colleges who want SAT Subject Tests usually ask for two scores. The Math II test is a necessary first exam, but what about the second exam? Is there a specific test that colleges think is necessary for prospective business majors? Well, there are two types of exams that you ought to consider taking if you’re thinking of pursuing a business major: As a general rule, we at do not recommend you take a language exam for your SAT Subject Tests, especially if the language you choose is your native language. However, there is one exception to this rule, and that’s if you’re planning on pursuing a degree in International Business or a trade. Otherwise, steer clear of those. Want to learn more about SAT II tests? See these previous blog posts: Want to find out what tests you need to take to boost your admissions profile? We’ll help diagnose your profile and build you a roadmap through our Mentorship Program . Through our Mentorship Program, you will be matched with a successful college student who is on a similar path when it comes to their academic, career, and college goals. This mentor will meet with you and your parents to provide helpful advice on all topics from college admissions to career goals, and they’ll make sure that you are poised to succeed throughout high school.  Ã‚  

'The historical importance of law to feminism and the women's movement Essay

'The historical importance of law to feminism and the women's movement cannot be under-estimated.' Discuss - Essay Example They began to criticize a system which had relegated them to the household and to the roles of wife and mother, and to demonstrate in support of laws and other measures which would allow them to extend their role, and to prove that they were at least the equals of men. At the same time, they criticized the ideologies which had outlined this restricted role for them, and female academics, in law but also in sociology, history, psychology and other areas, attempted a fundamental revision of existing frameworks which were now held to be inadequate. However, the relationship between feminism and the law is more complex than a consistent attack of the one by the other. Some of the most important breakthroughs for the women’s movement have involved the establishment of legal precedents to ensure that progress is enforceable by law. Nevertheless, it is also true to say that the feminist critique of law has become more comprehensive over time, and what might be called ‘postmoder n’1 feminism has refuted the legitimacy of the basic values which law claims to represent and defend. There is a general consensus, outlined by Naffine2 and Cain3, among others, that the historical links between law, feminism and the women’s movement can be divided into three main phases. In general terms, the first phase was characterised by feminist concerns about the male domination of law and the legal professions, and the ways in which men have operated a legal system designed to uphold the values of their own society and to perpetuate their power. The second phase broadened the attack, with feminists exploring the masculinity and masculine values which informs everything about law, and means that it is unable to take account of female values and experience, and does not operate for their benefit. More recently, feminists have extended this critique further, contending that the key values on which law claims to be based – justice and impartiality, for examp le – are compromised by its exclusion of female experience, so that these values become inherently male values. It is worth exploring each of these phases in more detail. In the first phase of feminist legal critique, from the mid-1960s, the vision of the law as a generally rational and fair institution was not much questioned. The law was seen as an institution currently monopolised by men, but prime territory for women to critique and infiltrate, so that the removal of legal constraints on female freedom could take place. Indeed, it was considered by the feminist mainstream that recourse to law would offer an opportunity for gaining effective women’s rights. The male monopoly of the legal profession was seen as a key obstruction, and a way to preserve jobs for men, with Sachs and Wilson arguing that men ‘manifest a grudging tolerance rather than a facilitative welcome to women entrants’4. Therefore, law was being criticised for not conforming to the own high standards of equality and objectivity it claimed to uphold. Of course, it was not only a matter of personnel. There was also an established male bias in legal thinking, perhaps to be expected in an institution dominated by men, with feminists complaining that it restricted the role of women to the private sphere5. By the end of this first phase, feminists and women’

Product definition Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Product definition - Coursework Example It is one of the most famous fashion line in the contemporary society has attraction clients from a global perspective (Jacobs, 2013). The following are the major reasons why clients purchase this product taking into consideration the five levels of product definition: This is usually the basic product and clients tend to focus on the purpose, which the product was intended. In the case of Louis Vuitton Women’s Trench Coats, clients focus on acquisition of the trench coats in order to provide warmth during rainy and cold seasons. In this level, the major focus of the clients to a product is based on all the qualities it possesses. In relation to Louis Vuitton women’s Trench Coats, they are preferred due to: Their ability to repel rain; high quality of fabrics used to make the coats; their different sizes, thus able to fit people of different body sizes; and the high quality of buttons fitted. In this level, clients tend to have various aspects of expectation regarding a product. Specifically, many clients purchasing Louis Vuitton Trench Coats are majorly attracted by the high quality of design of the coats, which enables the coats to provide warmth in a comfortable manner even when undertaking some physical activities such as riding bicycles. In this level, clients tend to focus on the additional qualities of a targeted product. In the case of Louis Vuitton Women’s Trench Coats, it has been preferred by a large number of clients from various parts of the world owing to the fact that it is a fashionable design and trendy. Louis Vuitton also offers clients a variety of trendy colors and designs that making it one of the most famous clothing lines in the global fashion arena. In this level of product definition, clients tend to focus on the future changes and additional features that may be made on their targeted products. In the case of Louis Vuitton women’s trench coat, there have been new designs, with additional

Value Added Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Value Added - Essay Example The difference is usually seen in the quantity of the components included when calculating the value added. Two ways have been suggested when obtained the value added for an organisation. First, there is the subtraction method where purchases are deducted from sales figure. Secondly, the addition method that sums up the profits, interests, depreciation, payroll etc. The two methods are explained towards wealth creation in the additive method and distribution of wealth in the subtraction method. Either of the two methods, should give the same figure of the value added in a business (Haslam and Neale, 2000, 35) The value added is demonstrated below Gross output (A) (minus) Bought in items, services (B) -------------delivers----------Valued added--------distributed to----- wages, consumption, capital, profits In a country’s records, the gross output represents the gross income from different industries. All purchases that are made by the government are then deducted, to arrive at the value added. To understand this concept, accounting information from Walmart Company is adopted and illustrated below. Example: Walmart Company income statement has been reviewed for the years 2011 and 2010. Figures all in $million Year 2011 Year 2010 Sales revenue 421,849.0 408,085 Less :Purchases made 315,287.0 304,444.0 Value added 106,562.0 103,641.0 Expenses – wages, administration. ... The value added per employee is obtained by dividing the figure calculated by the overall number of employees in a Company. The real value for 2011 for Walmart, would then be 106,562.0/2,100,000= $0.05 million per employee (Haslam and Neale, 2000, 55). The extent to which value added, cashflow, and profit connected to Company’s sales performance, is determined by critically analysing the realisation of the Company’s goal i.e. shareholder’s wealth creation. The value added shows the net value which excludes dealings from suppliers. The wealth so created is distributed amongst the expenditure, profits and capital of the firm. The cashflow statement shows the amount of cash that comes in the organisation e.g. from sales and cash out i.e. for the various expenditures undertaken. Cash expenditure in a company is includes: cash for investments, dividends paid, cash for operations etc. Cash inflow includes turnover, gain on sale of assets, interest income etc. To balanc e the cashflow, the cash outflow is subtracted from the cash inflow to get a deficit or a surplus. The resulting figure is the liquid money in the firm. This is related to the value added as both look at the company’s performance. If the resulting figure is a deficit, then the company is making losses and the performance is poor. Vice Versa is also true. True cash representation is assessed by the cashflow in and out of the Company’s operations. Any activities that do not involve cash e.g. outstanding debts, suppliers and outstanding debts are not incorporated. The cashflow depicts the true worth of a business as it paves ways for a cash budget to be created for the following year laying emphasis on the previous year’s cash spending. The shareholders of an organisation

Different Scientific Theories For Drugs And Crime Criminology Essay

Different Scientific Theories For Drugs And Crime Criminology Essay There are many different social scientific theories about the ever debated issue of the relationship between drugs and crime. The book highlights a few of the major social scientific theoretical perspectives. Although there are many different arguments as to the nature of the correlation, the one thing that is certain is that there is a significant relationship between drug use and crime. The first group of perspectives are from ethnographic and role theory analyses. They see the drug and crime relationship as being associated with subcultures more than directly causal of each other. Society would term these subculture behaviors as extremely deviant. This includes high frequencies of drug use, high crime rates, and high-risk sexual behavior. These are viewed as an integral part of the societal role of a typical street level drug-user. This perspective argues that drug use and crime are mutually reinforcing, not directly linear in cause. Another perspective comes from the ecological theoretical analysis. It argues that the relationship between drugs and crime are because the two activities happen in similar environmental conditions. These conditions include lack of social control, poverty, and economic opportunity. This perspective argues that crime is spuriously related to drug use. The final interpretation is the radical theory. This perspective says that the relationship between drugs and crime is a production of governmental legal policy since 1914, which criminalized many drug using behaviors. These theorists argue that the drug-crime relationship can be fought with the decriminalization of drugs, as well as treating drug use and addictions through social help programs. It is impossible to pinpoint the exact cause of the drug-crime relationship. But by using several different theories, such as the previous mentioned ones, it is possible to begin to develop an idea of the root cause. It is important to remember that one theory may not fit every single situation, but a group of well thought out theories can help us better explain the overall relationship of a particular problem. Chapter 1: Question 3 The Goldstein model is a framework for the linkage between drugs and crime. It attempts to explain the three different causes of violence that is linked with drugs. These three different classifications are; the psychopharmacological explanation, the economic-compulsive explanation, and the systematic explanation. Drug use is proven to be a major factor in crime in many cases. The majority of prisoners in the United States are there because of drugs, whether that be selling or using. The Goldstein model gets down to the bare minimum of how drugs affect violent crime. The first classification is the psychopharmacological violence. In this group, the violence that is committed happens because of the direct effects of a psychoactive drug on a user. This is not motivated by anything except for the compulsive effects of the drug. Drugs cause the body to act differently than normal. Some drugs cause the body to become mellow and calm, while others cause the body to lash out in fits of rage. The majority of people view psychopharmacological violence as mainly due to alcohol rather than any other drugs. The next classification for the drug-crime connection is the economic-compulsive violence. This happens when offenders commit an offense for the purpose of raising money to support their drug habit. Studies show that this classification is especially true for heroin addicts, but that it can be prevalent in other drugs as well. One of the major economic crimes committed for these drug addicts is drug dealing. Drug dealing is an easy way for the addicts to make enough money to support their habit, and at the same time they can keep some of the drugs for themselves. The final classification is the systematic violence. This violence happens in the course of struggles for market power. These drug markets have a high propensity for violence, whether that be from other dealers (turf war) or the buyers. A more in depth view of the violence in drug markets reveals that there are four factors that contribute to the violence. These are: the youth of the participants (youths are naturally more violent), the value of the drugs themselves (killing the buyer allows you to keep their money and still have your drugs), the intensity of law enforcement (potential police informants), and the indirect consequence of drug use (drug users are inclined to more violence due to the drug use). Chapter 2: Question 3 According to Andrew Golub and Bruce D. Johnson there are four phases of epidemics. They argue that drug epidemics usually will follow predictable steps. Their model was originally used to study the Crack Epidemic, but has gone on to be used to study the Heroin Injection Epidemic and the Marijuana Epidemic as well. The four steps are: the incubation phase, the expansion phase, the plateau phase, and the decline phase. The incubation phase is based on the idea that drug epidemics usually grow out of an individual social context (heroin from the jazz era and crack from inner-city drug dealers). During this incubation phase, the new drug practice is developed and perfected among a small group of adult drug users. Research suggests that the new fascination with marijuana was because of the youth inner-city hip-hop movement. They praised marijuana use in songs, clothing, and other venues. The next phase is the expansion phase. In this phase, the drug use spreads rapidly among subcultures. These subcultures are usually newly emerging who embrace the new drug use as hip and their thing. In the crack and heroin epidemics, this expansion phase took place among adults. Only after it spread through the adults was it embraced by youth. In contrast, the marijuana epidemic was first spread among youth. Next is the plateau phase of the drug epidemic. This stage is defined by youths becoming adults and wanting to get involved with the widespread drug of choice, currently that is marijuana. The rate of use of the drug of choice would be at high levels. The rate would be stable at this high rate and even slowly increasing. The final phase is the decline phase. This is just how it sounds. The rate of use for the specific drug would be declining overall, even rapidly declining. These four phases give an outline for the life of a drug epidemic. It is not necessarily a rule, but a general guideline for these epidemics. Chapter 2: Question 4 The gateway theory is a popular theory of drug addiction. It is widely accepted as true in many circles. It is based on the fact that a lot of research has shown that many American youths, who are involved in substance use and abuse, usually have a progression to their substance abuse. This progression of substance use involves four stages: the nonuse stage, alcohol/tobacco stage, marijuana stage, and finally harder drugs such as cocaine and heroin. The research shows that youths who do not use certain substances in one stage, rarely use the harder drugs in the later stages. However it does not say that every single user at one stage will necessarily progress to the next. This theory has produced the label of gateway drugs for substances such as alcohol, marijuana, and even tobacco. Current policies seek to prevent, or at least delay as long as possible, the youth from using gateway drugs. This is in hopes that if youth do not use gateway drugs, they wont move on to harder, more seri ous, drugs. This theory is not necessarily a strong theory. There have been several studies suggesting that this gateway progression may not be very relevant to mainstream youth of today or to inner-city populations. A study from the National Household Survey on Drug Abuse found that youths coming of age during the 1990s were highly unlikely to progress from the gateway drug, marijuana, to cocaine (powder and crack) or heroin. This was compared to youths born previously in decades before. This leads researchers to believe that substance abuse among youth reflects cultural, or even subcultural, norms among the youth. It suggests that substance abuse is acceptable or unacceptable among youth cultures, and that this cultural norm will reflect substance abuse. These cultural norms vary over time and locations as well. This theory has some credibility, but it is important to realize that theories may be strong one year, but may be weakened by cultural influences the next. Cultures progress and change over time, so it is impossible to assume that trends and patterns will not change as well. Chapter 3: Question 2 According to Lisa Maher and Kathleen Daly, the basic structure of New York City crack markets is an organized system of distribution. This is in contrast to the commonly characterized unregulated markets of individual crack dealers trying to get rich by themselves as crack entrepreneurs. The research suggests that as soon as there is a high enough demand for the crack, the individual freelancers are taken over by a more organized system for distribution. This is evidenced by the crack epidemic in New York City during the late 1980s. During that time many of the neighborhoods had highly organized street-level drug markets. These markets were dependent on each other and they had a hierarchical structure of organization. The organizational structure is much like that of the mafia, a highly organized street gang, or a Fortune-500 business. The drug business owners had many different crew bosses and managers or lieutenants. These managers were in charge of relaying orders from the owners to the street-level employees. They had the responsibility to organize and deliver all the necessary supplies and also for collecting the money made by the street-level workers. These managers could hire, fire, and pay the workers as they saw fit. They also handled problems the lower level employees had with each other or even the upper management. The next level down in the organizational structure, after the managers, crew bosses, or lieutenants; was the street-level drug dealers. These dealers had a specific area that they were in charge of selling to. The dealers were assisted in any way needed by the lower-level members; such as the runners, look-outs, and enforcers. The runners are responsible for having a continuous supply going to the dealers. The look-outs were in charge of warning the dealer of immanent threats (i.e. cops). And the enforcers were in charge of maintaining order, whether by force or presence. This system of drug dealing was extremely organized and sophisticated. It made it a serious problem for law enforcement officials to fight the already impossible war on drugs. This system made it possible for the drug companies to run smoothly and efficiently. Chapter 4: Question 3 In the article Street Youth and Criminal Violence Stephen W. Baron and Timothy F. Hartnagel offer three possible theories that explain youth violence. It is important to understand different possible explanations of youth violence because the criminal justice system needs to know the root cause in order to develop prevention strategies. The theories are the street subculture and lifestyle theory, the economic deprivation theory, and the routine activities theory. The street subculture and lifestyle theory is a popular explanation for violence among youths. It says that peer groups and role models glorify violent behavior rather than shunning it. The highest rates of violence are located in neighborhoods where violent role models are everywhere, such as inner-city neighborhoods with high rates of gang violence. This perspective argues that criminal acts are almost essential to the cultures and subcultures of the street, which slowly make violence more and more acceptable in youths. The economic deprivation theory argues that violent behavior is rooted in inequality, uneven distribution of wealth, and the deprivation of the have-nots compared to the haves. The degree of inequality is all a matter of perception by the individual. If the individual has a negative view of others compared to himself, this will create feelings of resentment and bitterness. These feelings can be manifested in expressions of violence and crime. The routine activities theory suggests that just presenting someone with the opportunity to commit crime can lead to increase in crime, completely dependent of social or structural conditions. This perspective says that violent street crime is merely a product opportunities that are presented to individuals in the daily life on the street. These perspectives differ because they each attribute the root cause of crime to different factors. In the street subculture theory, the crime is attributed to cultural norms, role models, and peer influence. In the economic deprivation theory, crime is attributed to financial unhappiness. In the routine activities theory, crime is attributed to the availability to commit the crime. All three of these perspectives probably are mostly truth, so it is wise to look at all three of them from a broad encompassing perspective. Chapter 4: Question 1 There are many etiological factors that predict young adult drug use and delinquency. These factors are not 100% accurate all of the time, but they serve as a means to help direct prevention and detection efforts. The causal factors are concluded from survey data taken of youth in high school. There are some obvious causal factors to youth delinquency and drug use and some not so obvious ones. There is a gender gap that is noticeable in this data as well. In the data, one of the obvious results was that a significantly smaller proportion of youth had committed a delinquent act in the twelve months prior to the survey than compared to their lifetimes. It also found that women were less likely to get involved in delinquent activities initially, but that after they were involved they were just as likely as men to remain persistent in delinquent acts. Another interesting finding was that about 50% of the individuals who admitted to committing an offense in their lifetime also did so in the previous twelve months leading up to the interview. One consistent finding was the persistence of participation in delinquent acts. If an individual committed an act once, they were much more likely to commit more delinquent acts in the future. The trend of committing delinquent acts differs from the trend of involvement in illegal drugs among youth. For example, persistent use of illegal drugs is much more likely than persistent commission of delinquent acts. Also, the proportion of continual illegal drug users is much lower for women than for men. Women are also much less likely to become initially involved and then to remain persistent users of illegal drugs than men. The disparity between men and women has always been large when it comes to crime. This can be due to a number of reasons. The first potential explanation for the disparity could be that the Criminal Justice System is more lenient on women than on men. Another possible, and statistically proven, explanation is that men are just proportionately over involved in crime compared to women. Whatever the reason, we know for sure that women are less likely to be involved in crime and illegal drugs. Chapter 5: Question 1 An interesting phenomenon has developed over the past twenty to thirty years in the Criminal Justice System. The prison population has more than tripled since the 1980s, while the crime rate has gone down drastically. It has especially dropped significantly since the early 1990s, yet the number of prisoners has steadily grown. There are a few different explanations for this seemingly out of control trend. Lana D. Harrison offers a well researched explanation of this phenomenon. She suggests that this wild rise in prison numbers can be attributed to policy changes and the war on drugs. In the early 2000s, over 2 million people were imprisoned in the United States. This is more than three times the number of prisoners that the United States had in the 1980s. Harrison argues that the majority of these drug prisoners were incarcerated in the 1980s at the beginning of the war on drugs. By 1996, 60% of the federal prisoners were imprisoned for drug offenses, 23% of state prisoners, and 22% of jail prisoners. The changing criminal justice process and new policies have contributed to this rise, including mandatory minimum sentences and the three-strikes laws. In the 1980s, the moral drug panics caused lawmakers to pass extremely strict drug laws. This in turn caused the dramatic increase in the numbers of drug prisoners across the board at all levels. Drug users who were incarcerated because of these stricter penalties went into prison addicted to drugs, and many times they also left prison addicted to drugs. These drug addicts returning to the communities returned no better than when they had gone to prison, still the same person, just older. Since these drug addicts had been to prison beforehand, they were much more likely to be convicted again for crimes they committed. This is a self perpetuating cycle which may be another explanation to the rising prison population. The rising prison population coupled with the decreasing crime rate is a much studied phenomenon in the criminal justice world. Harrison offers the explanation that it is due to the changing policies and the changes that took place in the criminal justice system itself. The war on drugs had far reaching consequences that caused a major crack down on drugs of all kinds, from the lowest of users to the most organized cartels. Chapter 5: Question 3 Douglas Longshore and his colleagues pose five different dimensions of the conceptual framework of drug courts. These dimensions include leverage, population severity, program intensity, predictability, and rehabilitation emphasis. Longshore suggests that the first two dimensions (leverage and population severity) of drug courts are structural characteristics. He says that the final three dimensions (program intensity, predictability, and rehabilitation emphasis) are characteristics of the process, which describe what occurs while offenders are processed through the drug courts. Leverage refers to the seriousness of penalties that offenders face who do not meet the requirements of programs and are dismissed from drug courts. When the participant completes all of the program requirements, the charge is reduced and even sometimes dropped completely. If the offender fails to complete the program, he or she may be sentenced and possibly incarcerated. Longshore suggests that the outcomes will be better when drug courts have more leverage (whether that be actual or just perceived) over the participants. The next structural characteristic is population severity, which refers to the difference in drug courts which are established to handle serious offenders as opposed to minor offenders, or the other way around. Other indicators of severity may include age, gender, or even employment history. Longshore says that courts set up to handle the more serious offenders will have less favorable outcomes. He does say however that there might be other less obvious dimensions that impact population severity as well. Program intensity refers to the requirements set out by the court for the completion of the drug court. These include urine tests, appearing in court, drug abuse classes and treatment. Optional requirements may be imposed as well such as employment, suitable living quarters, education, and paying fines. The next process characteristic is predictability, which refers to how the participant thinks the court will respond to their compliance or noncompliance. Predictability indicators may be drawn from court statistics and records. The final characteristic is rehabilitation emphasis. This is important when viewing the criminal justice system as rehabilitative instead of punishment focused. Rehabilitation is the focus of most drug courts. This emphasis can include how often the judge talks directly to and listens to the participant, time spent with the participant by all parties involved, and how close the participants sit in relationship to the bench. Longshore suggests that outcomes are better when drug courts are emphasized more on rehabilitation. Chapter 6: Question 1 Harm reduction is a goal for some policies and programs concerning drug abuse and other criminal issues. It is not a program in and of itself, but simply a goal of the programs. The two conflicting goals that divide peoples opinions are harm reduction and prohibition (demand and supply reduction). While prohibition seeks to completely do away with the illegal activity (alcohol, drugs, prostitution, etc.), harm reduction seeks to make those activities safer for the people who choose to participate in them. Harm reduction is seen by some people as the lesser of two evils. Peter Reuter and Robert J. MacCoun discuss the attempt at harm reduction with illegal drugs. People who hold the harm reduction point of view believe that it is more beneficial to reduce the harm done by illegal drugs than to try and do away with them altogether. The belief is that people will always be harming their bodies with drugs. The idea of harm reduction accepts this fact that people will always do drugs, and thus tries to make it safer for the people who choose to do so. This is a controversial policy, but may have more merit than it seems to have at face value. For example, in some countries public health services provide prescriptions for heroin users to obtain heroin legally. In some places, there are designated locations where heroin addicts can obtain and use heroin in a controlled and safe environment. Another example of harm reduction is needle exchange programs. These programs allow heroin addicts to exchange dirty needles for clean ones. This is in hopes of reducing the spreading of diseases, such as HIV and Hepatitis C, from one user to another. Proponents of harm reduction policies argue that it is much cheaper to provide these drug services to every single addict than to imprison the addict. They also say that by providing the drugs for the addicts, they reduce crime that the addict would need to commit in order to purchase the drugs for themselves. Opponents of harm reduction policies argue that making it safer (and thus easier) for addicts to use drugs will cause an increase in drug use. Chapter 6: Question 6 According to Philippe Bourgeois there are many different regional variations in using methadone as treatment. Methadone is a drug that is used to treat opiate (such as morphine or heroin) addicts. The addicts are given the methadone in small doses to help reduce withdrawal symptoms, and in large doses to block the high that opiates give the user. This method of treatment is not accepted 100% in the United States. For example, in eight states methadone is illegal to use in the treatment of opiate addicts. Even in the rest of the states where it is legal, there are still many divergent opinions about the treatment. Bourgeois argues that this difference in opinions depends on the focus of medical and criminal justice establishments in an area, the amount of street addicts in an area, and the overall culture and politics of the region. Along the Eastern Seaboard of the United States, the overwhelming cultural view is that substance abuse is a biological disease that requires medical intervention. Methadone treatment is fairly easy to obtain in these areas. It is also a multi-million dollar industry (for both treatment and research) and has dozens of locations throughout the region. Many of these methadone clinics and research facilities are paid for by the government. San Francisco is in stark contrast to the Eastern Seaboard. This city is dominated by a more New Age type thinking. This culture honors a healthy and drug free person. Some people (conspiracy theorists) even argue that methadone treatment is genocide against non-white people. Because of these viewpoints held by a majority of the culture, methadone clinics are few and far between. The few clinics that are in this region have very strict entrance requirements to be admitted into their programs. Some of the facilities require proof (from medical, police, or other record) that the user has been addicted for over a year with previous failed detox attempts. They fear that some people who really arent addicted to opiates will sneak their way into the program, and consequentially become methadone addicts. Chapter 7: Question 7 According to Lise-Marie VanNostrand and Richard Tewksbury, individuals desire to operate illegal drug enterprises for three reasons. They discovered these three motives by interviewing 20 dealers who were in drug court program. The three reasons are financial need, greed, and addition to the lifestyle. Most of the drug dealers interviewed in this study began their dealing career with a single one of these motives, but slowly over time the three motives began to overtake them. Financial need is a very motivating need. This is what motivated some of the individuals to begin their life of dealing drugs. Many people feel like they have no other option to provide for their responsibilities than drug dealing. Some of the people interviewed said that they had a job, but that it just wasnt able to pay for all of their needs and so they began dealing drugs. The majority of people who said that financial need was their motivation to deal drugs had kids and a family to take care of. These individuals saw drug dealing as the fastest and sometimes the only way to provide their familys needs. Greed is also a strong motivation in some people. These people do not necessarily need more money to take care of their needs, but they crave more money to take care of luxuries. Many of the dealers in the study conducted said that drug dealing appealed to them because of the opportunity to make fast and easy money. They often had legitimate employment or even ran businesses, but the desire for money overtook them and led them down a road to drug dealing. These individuals usually did not need to maintain normal jobs for the money, but they maintained normal jobs as a front or sometimes just to have something to fall back on. An addiction to the drug dealing lifestyle is a unique motivation. Some dealers simply want to live a fast paced lifestyle or have popularity and power. These desires seemingly cannot be filled by legitimate jobs. Many of these individuals believe that they cannot achieve recognition or respect due to their perceived lack of skills or respectable attributes, and so they turn to dealing drugs as a means to earn that respect. After they begin their drug selling careers, they begin to have a self perception that everyone respects and admires them. This, coupled with the immense financial gains, is a self perpetuating cycle that leads them farther and farther into a life of drug dealing.